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Form and extent of the Dufek intrusion, Antarctica, from newly compiled aeromagnetic data
1 January, 1998
The Dufek intrusion, in the northern part of the Pensacola Mountains, Antarctica, is part of an extensive, Middle Jurassic igneous province that was related to, and emplaced just prior to…Sequence stratigraphic analysis of the CRP-1, Cape Roberts Project, McMurdo Sound, Antarctica
1 January, 1998
Vertical facies associations within the CRP- 1 drillcorc reveal a strong cyclicity and facilitate the development of a sequence stratigraphic framework. The sedimentary record appears to be punctuated by a…Climate-change indicators from Archival aerial photography of the Antarctic Peninsula
1 January, 1998 by Adrian Fox
Aerial photography has been used as a mapping tool in the Antarctic Peninsula region since the late 1920s. Following pioneering work by Wilkins in 1928, Ellsworth in 1934 and the…Read more on Climate-change indicators from Archival aerial photography of the Antarctic Peninsula
Magnetopause motions in a Newton-Busemann approach
1 January, 1998 by Mervyn Freeman
The buffetting of the magnetosphere by the solar wind is the cause of many phenomena in the magnetosphere and the ionosphere, and affects the way in which we observe many…Read more on Magnetopause motions in a Newton-Busemann approach
Synthetic aperture radar interferometry over Rutford Ice Stream and Carlson Inlet, Antarctica
1 January, 1998
We describe the calibration and interpretation of interferograms generated from ERS-I synthetic aperture radar Single Look Complex (SAR. SLC) images of the Rutford Ice Stream area. Ground surveys provide over…Snowmelt modelling on Signy Island, South Orkney Islands
1 January, 1998
The ability of the Utah energy-balance and snowmelt model (UEB) to simulate decline in snow water equivalent (SWE) at an extreme location was assessed. Field data were collected at Paternoster…Read more on Snowmelt modelling on Signy Island, South Orkney Islands
A sediment record of cyclic bottom-current variability from the northwest Weddell Sea
1 January, 1998
Cores and 3.5 kHz, sub-bottom profiles collected from the continental slope and rise near 64°S, 52°W, off the tip of the Antarctic Peninsula, reveal transport and depositional processes in a…Read more on A sediment record of cyclic bottom-current variability from the northwest Weddell Sea
Fishery biology of the seven star flying squid Martialia hyadesi at South Georgia during winter
1 January, 1998 by Paul Rodhouse
A scientific research fishing expedition targeting the oceanic/slope ommastrephid squid Martialia hyadesi was undertaken by a Korean-registered squid jigger in CCAMLR area 48.3, near South Georgia, in June 1996, providing…Attribtuion of acoustic echoes to squid in the south Atlantic
1 January, 1998 by Jonathan Watkins, Paul Rodhouse
During a research cruise of the British Antarctic Survey ship RRS James Clark Ross in February 1996, more than 2 000 individuals of the ommastrephid squid, Martialia hyadesi, were caught…Read more on Attribtuion of acoustic echoes to squid in the south Atlantic
The stratigraphy and geochronology of Adelaide Island
1 January, 1998
The Mesozoic-Cenozoic volcanic arc of the Antarctic Peninsula is represented on Adelaide Island by a sedimentary and volcanic succession intruded by plutons. 40Ar-39 Ar step-heating age spectra have been obtained…Read more on The stratigraphy and geochronology of Adelaide Island
Illex argentinus
1 January, 1998 by Paul Rodhouse
The Argentinean short-finned squid, Illex argentinus, is distributed along the shelf and slope in the western South Atlantic from 22° to 54°S. Since 1977 catches by a local and an…Causes of seasonal and daily variations in aerosol sea-salt concentrations at a coastal Antarctic station
1 January, 1998 by Eric Wolff
Two years worth of daily aerosol data has been collected from Halley station, Antarctica, between February 1991 and February 1993. The seasonal cycle of sea-salt aerosol was found to peak…Rock temperatures and implications for cold region weathering. II: New data from Rothera, Adelaide Island, Antarctica
1 January, 1998
Rock temperature data collected at one-minute intervals from both the horizontal surface and the four cardinal directions of a rock outcrop show the influence of record interval and aspect on…An intercomparison of Antarctic sea ice extent datasets from the US Joint Ice Center (JIC) and satellite passive microwave observations for 1979–88
1 January, 1998
US Joint Ice Center (JIC) Antarctic sea ice extent data, the longest continuous series of its kind for this part of the world, are compared with direct passive microwave-based estimates…The Jurassic–Lower Cretaceous Byers Group, South Shetland Islands, Antarctica: revised stratigraphy and regional correlations
1 January, 1998
The Byers Group, exposed in the western South Shetland Islands, is a thick (at least 2.7 km) succession recording Late Jurassic–Early Cretaceous sedimentation and volcanism on the Pacific flank of…Table Nunatak: a key outcrop of Upper Cretaceous shallow-marine strata in the southern Larsen Basin, Antarctic Peninsula
1 January, 1998
The northern, James Ross Island region of the Larsen Basin, on the eastern, back-arc margin of the Antarctic Peninsula magmatic arc, includes one of the thickest and most complete Upper…Sublimation of ice through sediment in Beacon Valley, Antarctica
1 January, 1998 by Richard Hindmarsh, Richard Hindmarsh
The time-dependent physics of ice sublimation through thin layers of till is considered, to determine whether sublimation could be sufficiently slow to permit the preservation of ice for 8 Ma…Read more on Sublimation of ice through sediment in Beacon Valley, Antarctica
Palaeolimnology of Antarctic fur seal Arctocephalus gazella populations and implications for Antarctic management
1 January, 1998 by Dominic Hodgson, Nadine Johnston
A recent rapid increase in the number of Antarctic fur seals on Signy Island has caused extensive changes to terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems. A palaeolimnological study was carried out to…Tephra analysis of sediments from Midge Lake (South Shetland Islands) and Sombre Lake (South Orkney Islands), Antarctica
1 January, 1998 by Dominic Hodgson
Lake sediment cores from Midge Lake, Livingston Island, South Shetland Islands and Sombre Lake, Signy Island, South Orkney Islands were analysed for volcanic tephra using light microscopy and magnetic susceptibility.…Global change and Arctic ecosystems: conclusions and predictions from experiments with terrestrial invertebrates on Spitsbergen
1 January, 1998 by William Block
Extensive studies on invertebrates from Ny-Ålesund, Spitsbergen, Svalbard and more limited data on aphids from Abisko, Sweden, produced the following main conclusions: (1) The population response to raised summer temperatures…Krill transport in the Scotia Sea and environs
1 January, 1998 by Eugene Murphy
Historical observations of the large-scale flow and frontal structure of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current in the Scotia Sea region were combined with the wind-induced surface Ekman transport to produce a…Potential waves for relativistic electron scattering and stochastic acceleration during magnetic storms
1 January, 1998 by Richard Horne
The possibility of electron stochastic energization to relativisitic energies (≥ 1 MeV) via resonant wave-particle interactions during a magnetic storm is explored. The minimum electron energy Emin for cyclotron resonant…Climate anomaly wave-train patterns linking southern low and high latitudes during South Pacific warm and cold events
1 January, 1998 by John King
Atmospheric wave-trains of climate anomalies are investigated as a candidate for linking low and high latitude atmospheric signals during Pacific Ocean warm (ENSO) and cold (La Niña) events. Study results,…Mudwave activity and current-controlled sedimentation in Powell Basin, northern Weddell Sea, Antarctica
1 January, 1998
An area of mudwave development has been identified from the northwestern Powell Basin, northern Weddell Sea, Antarctica. The wave-field is located near the base of the continental slope in water…Southern hemisphere observations of a long-term decrease in F region altitude and thermospheric wind providing possible evidence for global thermospheric cooling
1 January, 1998
F region peak heights, derived from ionospheric scaled parameters through 38-year data series from both Argentine Islands (65°S, 64°W) and Port Stanley (52°S, 58°W) have been analyzed for signatures of…Mesospheric wind observations derived from Super Dual Auroral Radar Network (SuperDARN) HF radar meteor echoes at Halley, Antarctica: preliminary results
1 January, 1998
The implementation of a technique to derive mesospheric winds from HF radar observations of meteor echoes at Halley (76°S, 27°W), Antarctica, is described. The meteor echoes are observed at near…Predicting total ozone based on GTS data: applications for South American high-latitude populations
1 January, 1998 by Anna Jones, John Turner
A regular occurrence during the 1990s has been the excursion of the edge of the springtime Antarctic ozone hole over the southernmost region of the South American continent. Given the…Ionospheric electron content across the Antarctic continent
1 January, 1998
Observations of satellite passes monitored at Halley and Terra Nova Bay have been combined to produce for the first time measurements of ionospheric electron content spanning the Antarctic continent. Results…Read more on Ionospheric electron content across the Antarctic continent
Occurrence and characteristics of high-latitude mesospheric echoes at MF: observations by Halley and Tromso dynasondes
1 January, 1998
The dynasonde at Halley, Antarctica, is operated throughout the year making ionogram soundings every five minutes. The extensive database of observations from 1993 and 1994 has been processed to investigate…Towards a new free air anomaly map of the Antarctic Peninsula
1 January, 1998
Since 1959 the British Antarctic Survey (BAS) has undertaken reconnaissance gravity surveys of the Antarctic Peninsula. Approximately 1500 on-rock and about 600 on-snow station values were measured. Continuing climatic, topographical…Read more on Towards a new free air anomaly map of the Antarctic Peninsula
A reassessment of the age of the Cockburn Island Formation, northern Antarctic Peninsula, and its palaeoclimatic implications
1 January, 1998
New constraints on the age of the Cockburn Island Formation, northern Antarctic Peninsula, resulting from whole rock laser-stepped heated 40Ar–39Ar dating of associated basalt and palaeomagnetic re-calibration of the ranges…The Cockburn Island Formation; Late Pliocene interglacial sedimentation in the James Ross Basin, northern Antarctic Peninsula
1 January, 1998
The longest-known pectinid-bearing deposit in the Antarctic, the "Pecten-conglomerate" of Cockburn Island in the James Ross Island group, northern Antarctic Peninsula, is herein formally named the Cockburn Island Formation. A…Stratigraphy of Antarctic late Cenozoic pectinid-bearing deposits
1 January, 1998
Antarctic late Cenozoic pectinid-bearing sedimentary strata are chiefly confined to localities in the northern part of the Antarctic Peninsula, in the McMurdo Sound area, and Marine Plain, East Antarctica. Ages…Read more on Stratigraphy of Antarctic late Cenozoic pectinid-bearing deposits
Lower Miocene macrofossils from CRP-1 drillhole, Cape Roberts, (Victoria Land Basin, Antarctica)
1 January, 1998
Macrofossil content from the Miocene part of CRP-1 core, Cape Roberts (Victoria Land Basin) is scant and mostly limited to a few pectinid bivalves and serpulid polychaetes. Selective diagenesis has…Ambient air levels and atmospheric long-range transport of persistent organochlorines to Signy Island, Antarctica
1 January, 1998
Levels of persistent organic pollutants (POPs), such as polychlorinated biphenyls and pesticides have been determined in ambient air at Signy Island, Antarctica, over a period of 17 weeks. Mean concentrations…Using satellite thermal infrared imagery to study boundary layer structure in an Antarctic katabatic wind region
1 January, 1998 by John King, Thomas Lachlan-Cope
We use snow surface temperatures obtained from thermal infrared (TIR) satellite imagery, together with radiosonde profiles of free-air temperature and high-resolution topographic data to study the thermal structure of the…Climate change in the western Antarctic Peninsula since 1945: observations and possible causes
1 January, 1998 by John King
Temperature records from stations on the west coast of the Antarctic Peninsula show a very high level of interannual variability and, over the last 50 years, larger warming trends than…Age, growth and maximum size of Antarctic notothenioid fish — revisited
1 January, 1998 by Andrew Clarke
The temperature of the Southern Ocean has undergone an overall reduction from about 20 °C to −1.8 °C over the last 55–60 million years. To date, the Southern Ocean is…Read more on Age, growth and maximum size of Antarctic notothenioid fish — revisited
Climatology of the three coastal Antarctic stations Dumont d’Urville, Neumayer, and Halley
1 January, 1998 by John King
Long term air and snowfall chemistry measurements have been performed at the three coastal Antarctic stations Dumont d'Urville (66°40′S, 140°1′E), Neumayer (70°39′S, 8°15′W), and Halley (75°35′S, 26°19′W). The results have…South Sandwich slices reveal much about arc structure, geodynamics, and composition
1 January, 1998 by Ed King, Philip Leat, Robert Larter
The simple tectonic history of the South Sandwich island arc, a classic intra-oceanic arc lying in the South Atlantic Ocean, provided excellent opportunities for the Sandwich Lithospheric and Crustal Experiment…Read more on South Sandwich slices reveal much about arc structure, geodynamics, and composition
Strontium-isotope stratigraphy of the CRP-1 drillhole, Ross Sea, Antarctica
1 January, 1998
Strontium isotope stratigraphy was used to date five discrete horizons within CRP- 1. Early and late Quaternary (0 87- 1 3 Ma and 0-0 67 Ma respectively) age sediments overlie…Read more on Strontium-isotope stratigraphy of the CRP-1 drillhole, Ross Sea, Antarctica
Ammonium in coastal Antarctic aerosol and snow: Role of polar ocean and penguin emissions
1 January, 1998 by Robert Mulvaney
Year-round aerosol samples collected in the boundary layer at coastal Antarctic sites (Dumont D'Urville, Neumayer, and Halley) indicate a seasonal cycle of ammonium concentrations with a minimum in winter (April–September).…Methane sulfonic acid to non-sea-salt sulfate ratio in coastal Antarctic aerosol and surface snow
1 January, 1998
Multiple-year time series of the weight ratio R of methane sulfonic acid (MSA) to non-sea-salt sulfate (nss SO4) in aerosols collected at three coastal Antarctic stations Neumayer (70°39′S, 8°15′W), Halley…CUTLASS observations of convection in the cusp region
1 January, 1998 by Michael Pinnock
The Finnish radar of CUTLASS has been operational since February 1995. Between 0620 and 0800 UT on August 25 1995, a region of ionospheric scatter, which was limited to only…Read more on CUTLASS observations of convection in the cusp region
The behavior of the electric field within the substorm current wedge
1 January, 1998 by Mervyn Freeman
We use the Goose Bay HF radar to investigate the behavior of the electric field within the substorm current wedge for a small substorm (< 200 nT) which occurred on…Read more on The behavior of the electric field within the substorm current wedge
Multipoint study of a substorm on February 9, 1995
1 January, 1998
An extended interval of strong northward interplanetary magnetic field (IMF) was observed by the Wind spacecraft located at an upstream distance of ∼193 RE from February 8–10, 1995, with a…Read more on Multipoint study of a substorm on February 9, 1995
Tracing the Indian Ocean mantle domain through time: isotopic results from old west Indian, east Tethyan, and south Pacific seafloor
1 January, 1998 by Philip Leat
The isotopic difference between modern Indian Ocean and Pacific or North Atlantic Ocean ridge mantle (e.g. variably lower 206Pb/204Pb for a given εNd and 208Pb/204Pb) could reflect processes that occurred…Southern hemisphere circulation anomalies associated with extreme Antarctic peninsula winter temperatures
1 January, 1998 by Gareth Marshall, John King
The Southern Hemisphere reveals markedly different circulation patterns associated with extreme warm and cold Antarctic Peninsula (AP) winter temperatures. Warm winters are associated with negative 500 hPa height anomalies in…Interpreting recent accumulation records through an understanding of the regional synoptic climatology: an example from the southern Antarctic Peninsula
1 January, 1998 by Gareth Marshall, John Turner
In this study we correlate temporal features within the electrical conductivity (acidity) traces of four shallow firn cores obtained from the southern Antarctic Peninsula to synoptic-scale variations in the regional…Aerial transport of keratinaceous substrate and distribution of the fungus Geomyces pannorum in Antarctic soils
1 January, 1998
Aerobiological sampling was conducted year-round at three sites on Signy Island, maritime Antarctic, between December 1992 and January 1994, and during the summer at a fourth coastal site. The concentrations…Eye structure and amphibious foraging in albatrosses
1 January, 1998
Anterior eye structure and retinal visual fields were determined in grey–headed and black–browed albatrosses, Diomedea melanophris and D. chrysostoma (Procellariiformes, Diomedeidae), using keratometry and an ophthalmoscopic reflex technique. Results for…Read more on Eye structure and amphibious foraging in albatrosses
Diving behaviour of Antarctic fur seal (Arctocephalus gazella) pups
1 January, 1998
The diving behaviour of Antarctic fur seal (Arctocephalus gazella) pups on Bird Island, South Georgia (54°S, 38°W), was examined during February-April 1996 using capillary-tube depth gauges (CDGs) and time-depth recorders…Read more on Diving behaviour of Antarctic fur seal (Arctocephalus gazella) pups
Foraging responses of Antarctic fur seals to changes in the marine environment
1 January, 1998
This study examined the relative contribution of environmental variation and the seasonal demands of pup rearing on the foraging behaviour of female Antarctic fur seals Arctocephalus gazella at Bird Island,…Read more on Foraging responses of Antarctic fur seals to changes in the marine environment
Tectonic implications of fore-arc magmatism and generation of high-magnesian andesites: Alexander Island, Antarctica
1 January, 1998
Alexander Island, situated off the west coast of the Antarctic Peninsula, contains a suite of Late Cretaceous to Early Tertiary subduction-related magmatic rocks. The rocks occupy a fore-arc position 100–200…Late Cretaceous to early Tertiary subduction history of the Antarctic Peninsula
1 January, 1998 by Robert Larter
Quantitative estimates of the rates and azimuths of Phoenix plate convergence with the Antarctic Peninsula have been derived from plate rotation calculations for two periods in the Late Cretaceous and…Read more on Late Cretaceous to early Tertiary subduction history of the Antarctic Peninsula
Biogeography of limno-terrestrial Tardigrada, with particular reference to the Antarctic fauna
1 January, 1998 by Sandra McInnes, Sandra McInnes
The Tardigrada is a cosmopolitan phylum of pre-Pangaean origin, yet tardigrade families and genera show distinct biogeographic components isolated by two major geological events. Separate Laurasian and Gondwanan familial clusters…Assessment of the benefits of weather forecasting for British Antarctic Survey operations
1 January, 1998 by Thomas Lachlan-Cope
The British Antarctic Survey operates both aircraft and ships in the Antarctic. High quality weather forecasts can have a large impact on safe operations at high southern latitudes. This paper…Reproductive patterns in the Antarctic brachiopod Liothyrella uva
1 January, 1998 by Lloyd Peck
The reproductive cycle of the Antarctic articulate brachiopod Liothyrella uva (Broderip, 1833) is described from monthly samples collected between September 1985 and July 1987 from a population at Signy Island,…Read more on Reproductive patterns in the Antarctic brachiopod Liothyrella uva
Sulfur-containing species (sulfate and methanesulfonate) in coastal Antarctic aerosol and precipitation
1 January, 1998 by Eric Wolff
The concentrations of sulfur-containing species (sulfate and methanesulfonate (MSA)) of aerosols collected at three coastal Antarctic sites (Neumayer, Dumont d'Urville, and Halley) have been studied in order to investigate the…Spiess Ridge: An axial high on the slow spreading Southwest Indian Ridge
1 January, 1998
We report recent mapping of Spiess Ridge with the Hawaii-MR1 sidescan sonar. Spiess Ridge is an unusual elongate 90 by 50 km volcanic feature on the slow spreading Southwest Indian…Read more on Spiess Ridge: An axial high on the slow spreading Southwest Indian Ridge
The present configuration of the Bouvet triple junction
1 January, 1998
New Hawaii-MR1 sonar data show that the southernmost Mid-Atlantic Ridge joins the South American–Antarctic Ridge by an obliquely opening rift and overlaps Spiess Ridge, the westernmost segment of the Southwest…Read more on The present configuration of the Bouvet triple junction
Profiles of soluble carbohydrates and their adaptive role in maritime Antarctic terrestrial arthropods
1 January, 1998
The existence of seasonal changes in concentrations of water-soluble carbohydrates in arthropods (both freezing-tolerant and intolerant species) from Signy Island was demonstrated. Seasonal patterns of variation, imposed by seasonality of…Identification and correlation of distal tephra layers in deep-sea sediment cores, Scotia Sea, Antarctica
1 January, 1998
Quaternary deposits in six sediment cores from the Scotia Sea, Antarctica, were examined for the presence of volcanic ash layers. The cores were recovered from water depths of 3369-4025 m.…Postdepositional change in snowpack nitrate from observation of year-round near-surface snow in coastal Antarctica
1 January, 1998 by Eric Wolff, Robert Mulvaney
Postdepositional loss of nitrate in near-surface snowfall is well known, with mean levels of nitrate in ice cores of around 20 to 80 ng g−1, while nitrate in surface snow…Carbon flux in ice–ocean–plankton systems of the Bellingshausen Sea during a period of ice retreat
1 January, 1998 by Eugene Murphy
Most analyses of marine microbial systems in the seasonally ice covered areas of the Southern Ocean have been based on data from the major embayment areas of the Ross and…Interannual variability of the South Georgia marine ecosystem: biological and physical sources of variation in the abundance of krill
1 January, 1998 by Eugene Murphy, Jonathan Watkins, Philip Trathan
Interannual variability is a characteristic feature of the Southern Ocean ecosystem, yet the relative roles of biological and physical processes in generating these fluctuations are unknown. There is now extensive…Sensitivity of the divide position at Siple Dome, West Antarctica to boundary forcing
1 January, 1998 by Richard Hindmarsh, Richard Hindmarsh
A linearized perturbation about a two-dimensional Vialov-Nye icesheet profile is used to investigate the sensitivity of the divide position at Siple Dome, West Antarctica, to small changes in the accumulation…Read more on Sensitivity of the divide position at Siple Dome, West Antarctica to boundary forcing
Interannual variability in the early growth rate and size of the Antarctic fish Gobionotothen gibberifrons (Lönnberg)
1 January, 1998 by Philip Trathan
Gobionotothen gibberifronsComparison of warming trends predicted over the next century around Antarctica from two coupled models
1 January, 1998
This paper investigates the climate change in two atmosphere-ice-ocean coupled climate models - the UKMO and the CSIRO - in the Antarctic region over the next century. The objectives were…Antarctic species in the genus Ditrichum (Ditrichaceae, Bryopsida), with a description of D. gemmiferum sp. nov.
1 January, 1998
There are five species in the genus Ditrichum Hampe in the Antarctic: D. heteromallum (Hedw.) Britt., D. conicum (Mont.) Mitt., D. austrogeorgicum (Card.) Seppelt, D. lewis-smithii Ochyra and D. gemmiferum…Antarctic HF radar observations of irregularities associated with polar patches and auroral blobs: A case study
1 January, 1998 by Michael Pinnock
We report a case study of decameter-scale electron density irregularities associated with polar cap patches and auroral (boundary) blobs in the southern high-latitude F region ionosphere. The observations were carried…The role of beak shape in octopodid taxonomy
1 January, 1998
Beak shapes in nine species of Southern Ocean octopodids were measured using seven size-standardized ratios. The results were analysed using principal component analysis and discriminant function analysis and show that…Divorce in king penguins: asynchrony, expensive fat storing and ideal free mate choice
1 January, 1998
In long-lived and monogamous species, with partners separated between breeding seasons, the previous mate usually returns and waiting is therefore rewarded, thus contributing to mate retention as an adaptive strategy.…Read more on Divorce in king penguins: asynchrony, expensive fat storing and ideal free mate choice
The proto-Andean margin of Gondwana: an introduction
1 January, 1998
A basic background is presented for the discussion of the Early Palaeozoic geology of western Argentina covered by this book. This includes the definition and terminology of orogenic cycles on…Read more on The proto-Andean margin of Gondwana: an introduction
The Famatinian magmatic arc in the central Sierras Pampeanas: an Early to Mid-Ordovician continental arc on the Gondwana margin
1 January, 1998
A new multi-disciplinary study of the central Sierras Pampeanas encompasses fieldwork, petrography, metamorphic and micro-structural analysis, geochemistry and geochronology. Remnants of a low-to-medium grade metasedimentary sequence, which also occurs in…Geochronology and geochemistry of pre-Jurassic superterranes in Marie Byrd Land, Antarctica
1 January, 1998
Marie Byrd Land, Antarctica, is a major part of the proto-Pacific supercontinental margin. On the basis of new geochronological and geochemical data relating to its pre-Jurassic evolution, Marie Byrd Land…The Chon Aike province of Patagonia and related rocks in West Antarctica: A silicic large igneous province
1 January, 1998 by Philip Leat, Teal Riley
The field occurrence, age, classification and geochemistry of the Mesozoic volcanic rocks of Patagonia and West Antarctica are reviewed, using published and new information. Dominated by rhyolitic ignimbrites, which form…